Economic Gains of Water Scarcity Adaptation Strategies in Makindu Sub-County, Kenya

 

Peter K. Musyimi¹, Gilbert M. Nduru², Julius M. Huho³, Francis E. Opiyo⁴

 

¹Department of Humanities, Karatina University, Kenya 

²Department of Environmental Studies, Karatina University, Kenya 

³Department of Arts and Social Sciences, Garissa University, Kenya

⁴Regional Beaural for East and Central Africa, United Nations-World Food Programmes

Corresponding Author: Email: pemusyimi@gmail.com.

 

Abstract

Water a very critical role in Kenyans economy in terms of food security, and improves all sectors of economy. However, water sector is under threat particularly in arid and semi- arid lands which are vulnerable to climate change. Adapting and coping with water scarcity is the only remedy for communities in those areas. This strategies provide economic gains to rural households. Thus, it is important to understand the economic gains of water scarcity adaptation strategies in Makindu Sub-County, Kenya to which the paper contributes by examining the gains drawn from these strategies. The study adopted descriptive survey design. Data was collected from 370 households through simple random and purposive sampling. The study findings shows that the adopted adaptation strategies contribute to improved economic status and livelihood of the communities living in the area. However, the economic gains varied depending on factors like financial ability of households and the knowledge about adaptation to water scarcity. Hence, there is need to sensitize rural communities to adapt and cope to water scarcity for better livelihood socially and economically.

Key words: Economic gains, water scarcity, adaptation strategies, Kenya

 

Introduction

Water plays a role in all sectors of economy and is essential in achieving sustainable development (UN-Water, 2012). Water scarcity can broadly be understood as the lack of access to adequate quantities of water for human and environmental uses (White, 2012). There are two categories of water scarcity namely: physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity. Economic water scarcity occurs when there is lack of investment and proper management to meet the demand of people who do have the financial means to use existing water sources and it’s characterized by poor infrastructures (Molden, 2007; FAO, 2012). Adaptation strategies to water scarcity have several economic values ranging from water security to food security for both people and livestock.

Water-efficiency strategies provide important benefits to farmers, ecosystems, and society. Some of the water adaptation strategies represent new supply that can be dedicated to other uses. But there are also compelling reasons to seek reductions in total water withdrawals, e.g., allowing farmers to maintain and even improve crop yields and quality; protecting water quality; reducing fertilizer, water, and energy costs; and boosting profits.

 

The multiple benefits associated with reducing both consumptive and non-consumptive water uses argues for a comprehensive approach for promoting water-efficiency improvements. These allows communities to address complex and interrelated water management challenges conflicts among water users. For example, Pastoralist dig shallow wells on dry water pans to reach the water for their livestock and other uses as Rutten (2005) argues that Maasai pastoralist in Kajiado County, Kenya made use of dry river beds during dry periods by scooping sand. Further, rain water harvesting constitute a potential source of drinking water and irrigation water and if properly managed could reduce water and food crisis in several developed countries suffering from water shortage (Helmreich & Horn, 2009).

 

Objective of the Study

The main objective of this study was to examine economic gains of water scarcity adaptation strategies in Makindu Sub-County of Makueni County, Kenya.

 

Study context

Study site

Makindu Sub-County has an average elevation of about 1064 meters above sea level. It is located in south eastern Kenya with a size 2075.6 km². Makindu Sub-County lies on latitude 2⁰ 10¹ and 2⁰ South and longitude 37⁰ 40¹ and 37⁰ 55¹ East (Makueni CIDP, 2013). The sub county has 4 locations namely Makindu, Kiboko, Nguumo and Twaandu and 15 sub locations namely Manyatta, Kiu, Kai, Syumile, Ndovoini, Ngakaa, Muuni, Kisingo, Kaunguni, Kamboo, Kyale, Kasuvi, Mitendeu, Kalii and Mulilii. The study area is shown in Figure 17.0 below.

 

Drainage

Makindu Sub-County is served mainly by River Kiboko and Maangi-uvungu which are permanent and Rivers Kyumbi, Makindu, Kikuu, Muooni which are seasonal and their flows become irregular as they move to the low lying areas due to high usage of water for small scale irrigation at the source. Surface and ground water resources found the locale are unevenly distributed. There is spatio-temporal variability of river water resources. Other sources of water in the area of study include communal dams, private dams, roof catchment, boreholes and Kwa-Vombo spring which is the main spring in the study area. Due to scarcity of water in the sub county, people have settled near water catchment areas near River Makindu hence affecting the supply in Makindu town and its environs. Sand harvesting along the river bed has had effects on retention of water in rivers in the area leading to water scarcity (Makueni CIDP, 2013).

Population and Livelihood Systems

In this study, the target population included rural households of Makindu Sub-County. A target population of 9,907 households was used and the area had a population of 42,094 (KNBS, 2009). The main economic activities are subsistence agriculture, agro-pastoralism, small scale trade, irrigation farming. The area is dominated by Kamba Maasai ethnic groups. The Sub-County is served by the Nairobi-Mombasa railway. This eases the transportation of goods in the area.  The main crops produced in the area are maize, green-grams, yams, pigeon peas, sorghum, paw paws and oranges. The area has a MotorCycle assembly and offers employment to its residents. (Makueni CIDP, 2013)

Climate, Soil and Vegetation

 Makindu Sub-County is typically arid and semi-arid land (ASAL) and often experiences prolonged drought.  The area normally experiences a bimodal rainfall distribution patterns. The long rains mainly fall from March to May and short rains fall from October to December (Makueni CIDP, 2013). However, this has kept on changing over time with respect to climate changes, which have involved shifts in the timing when rains begin in the area. The area lies in lower side of Makueni County and receives annual rainfall ranging from 300mm-400mm (Makueni CIDP, 2013). Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in the history of the region that has often been marked by crop failure. Generally, the area experiences maize crop failure during short rains every 1 in every 3 years. Rainfall has been characterized by spatio-temporal distribution and variability which leads to water scarcity. Over the last couple of years extreme temperatures have been reported. For instance the area often experiences a minimum temperature of 24⁰C to a maximum temperature of 35.8⁰C (Makueni CIDP, 2013). During the dry periods between May and October the area experience severe heat at a temperature of 30⁰ C on average.

 The soils in this area are well drained, shallow to deep, yellowish red to dark brown colored, friable high rich in calcisols, cambisols, luvisols dominated by calcium carbonate (Muchena, Mbuvi & Wokabi, 1988). The predominant vegetation in this area is mainly a cover of shrubs and thicket, grass and herbaceous plants. The dominant wood tree species include baobab trees (Adansonia digitata), Umbrella thorn tree (Acacia tortilis), Terminalia brownie, Sanseveria, Acacia melliferra and Acacia etbaica (Gichuki, 2000).

 

Methodology

The study is descriptive and relied on primary data. Information regarding of water adaptation strategies was sought from KIMAWASCO (Kibwezi Makindu water and Sanitation Company), Tanathi water services board officer in Makindu district water office, G.A.A (Germany agro action field officers) and Lutheran world relief and rural households. The target population of the study was 9,907 households. A total of 370 households were randomly sampled. Purposive sampling method was used during data collection from key informants. Key informants included Makindu Sub-County water supply and connections officer, Regional Coordinator of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation in the Sub-County, KIMAWASCO Manager. To supplement the data from rural households, photography was also used. This was crucial in understanding the economic gains of adopted adaptation strategies in the area.

Results and Discussion

Water Scarcity Adaptation and Coping Strategies

The study revealed that  households’ used various water scarcity  adaptation strategies with 33.5 percent using rain water harvesting techniques, 22.4 percent using boreholes, 14.6 percent using piped water, 8.6 percent used shallow wells and 20.9 percent used water tankering, sand dams and earth dams and walking for long distances (Table 1.0).

 

Table 1.0 Adaptation Strategies to Water Scarcity

Adaptation strategy	No. of rural households	Percentages (%)
Boreholes	83	22.4
Rainwater harvesting	124	33.5
Piped water	54	14.6
Coping strategies	No. of rural households	Percentages (%)
Shallow wells	32	8.6
Walking for long distances, water tankering, sand and earth-dams	77	20.9
Total	370	100

    Source: Authors compilation from field data, 2015.

Data from Table 4.0 indicate that rain water harvesting was the most preferred water scarcity adaptation strategy. This was because the households used storage structures such as storage tanks and techniques like roof catchment to harvest water which go to waste during rainy season. These results are consistent with Ngima (2015) that most households’ adapt to erratic water supply by buying water containers for storage purposes once the water is harvested.

 

Economic Gains of the Adaptation Strategies

Irrigation Farming For Food Security

The study established that water harvested during rainy season helped farmers practice farming of kales and fruits for enhancing food security (Plate 1). Households indicated that they harvested rain water which lasted for a period between 1 to 4 months depending on the size of storage structures and they planted vegetables for home instead of buying. The money instead was used for boosting their small scale trades. Households with tanks of large storage capacity practiced roof water harvesting during rainy season which provided water unto them during the dry spells (Plate 2)

The study established that households could afford this strategy because once they bought and constructed storage structures like masonry and plastic tanks and installed gutters for harvesting water then less cost was incurred in maintenance. When prompted further, the households stated that it was less expensive to harness both surface runoff and roof catchment since it used cheap labor which was less than Kshs. 10,000 for installation.

 

Feasibility

Households stated that they harvested rainwater which lasted for about 2-3 months once it was harvested ensuring availability of water during dry months from June to July. This statement is line with Enfors (2009) that water harvesting and storage would be vital to ensure water availability especially during prolonged dry season and droughts which can be used for family farming. According to Kimani, Gitau & Ndunge (2015) rainwater harvesting has shown a high degree of reliability especially to households who have invested in high capacity rainwater storage tanks. This was the most accessible water scarcity adaptation strategy in Makindu Sub-County. Households indicated that it was easier to access water since the distance to the storage structures was in range of metres. In addition, households indicated that technologies to harness the water were locally available and once water was harvested, it was easy to access it.

Availability of water

An interview with G.A.A field officer indicated that water from the boreholes was available all times. This implies that boreholes are reliable sources of water in Makindu Sub-County during water scarcity regimes and for households to cheaply buy it.  This statement corroborates with US-Geological Survey (1993) assertion that in arid or dry regions people rely on ground water (Boreholes) to meet their needs. For instance, in Isiolo County, boreholes were the most reliable sources of water during dry spells (Mati, Muchiri, Njenga, Penning de Vries, Merreys, 2005). Households argued that they were able to access water from boreholes since most of them did not go dry throughout the year. For example households from Twaandu Location accessed water easily from Ngakaa, Kwanzioka and Ngomano boreholes which were near their homesteads. The study established that the distance travelled by households to access water from boreholes was about 5km on average. This implies that boreholes should be sunk in every location to increase accessibility and expand irrigation farming for kales (Plate 3)

Sustainability

Earth-dams were sustainable since household stated that two out of five earth-dams could hold water throughout the year enabling irrigation farming for food self-sufficiency. They included Kwa-Luma and Sekeleni earth –dams and they had served the households from Ngakaa and Nguumo location for 7 years and 5 years respectively. The study also established that G.A.A was involved greatly in disilting the earth dams and maintaining them to ensure maximum harvesting of surface run-off during rainy season. This suggests that well-constructed and maintained earth-dams can serve households and their livestock for long time during drought years. Households stated that in terms of consumption and proximity to the earth-dams household fetched water for free. The study established that the earth dams were constructed by N.G.Os. Households stated that earth –dams harnessed a lot of water during rainy season which they used for their livestock and irrigation farming during prolonged drought. This improved food security in the area.

 

Reliable for Farming

Piped water was reliably used for house chores and irrigation farming.  An interview with a pump water attendant indicated that piped water was reliable because its source was Kwa-Vombo spring which was permanent. Farmers used the water to irrigate their vegetables besides home use (Plate 4). However, damaged pipes led to delays in repairing them causing water shortage. This finding is in line with Munyao (2014) who stated that households’ inability to pay electricity bills and delays in fixing damaged pipes made piped water unreliable.

In addition, households stated that piped connections minimized the distance taken by households to other water sources making water accessible to them. The study established that 21.1 percent of the households in the study area had access to piped water. These results are slightly below the 28.5 percent of the people who have access to piped water in Eastern and 30 percent of the households in Kenya (G.o.K, 2010). This implies that existing piped water should be improved through increasing the community drawing points for instance, water kiosks. This finding corroborates with   David & Katua (2013) who stated that in Marsabit County people were able to draw water from built kiosks. An interview with the area Water Manager also indicated that piped connections were installed to minimize distance taken to water points during dry months. He further stated that the once the piped connections was done water could be supplied for a duration of about 2-3 months but with rationing mostly in Kalii and Kyale Sub-Locations which are located far from the Kwa-Vombo spring and besides household consumption few farmers who had mixed adaptation strategies used the piped water  to practice farming( Plate 5).

Livestock use

Households argued that sand dams (Plate 6) were used for about 2 months when the rivers dried up. For example an interview with Chief from Makindu Location indicated that Kisingo sand dam was used for about 3 months when River Kiumbi dried. When prompted further, households stated that the sand dams could supply water for about 2 months during dry months as a strategy to water scarcity and would supply water to their livestock and farming alongside them. This statement concurs with IISD (2009) who stated that households of Sakai in Mbooni addressed water scarcity by construction of three sand dams which provided water to 382 households and 1,146 cattle from four villages.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Kenya classified as a water scarce country requires harnessing of available surface, sub-surface and ground resources that go to waste. This is because the challenge of water scarcity in recent years has doubled the focus of water economic and sustainable development. The study established that rural households adapted and coped with water scarcity using various strategies. These ranged from boreholes to sand dams.  These strategies provided gains to the households economically and improved their livelihoods in terms of food security and water sufficiency. This paper will be suitable and applicable to policy makers, County government and non-governmental agencies as they carry out water management projects to involve community in decision making and planning of water management practise. However, poverty was the main drawback to households as depicted throughout the study. The results and findings of the study are suitable in arid and semi-arid areas where water scarcity is a challenge. This paper has unearthed the economic importance of adopted adaptation strategies. Further research can be done on the effects of encroachment in water sources affecting water flow and retention in water catchment areas and gender roles adapting to water scarcity in the County.

 

The study recommends that; the county government should sensitize people on utilizing available water in a manageable way for economic benefits and the County government in partnership with NGOs should enlarge earth-dams and drill boreholes to enable the rural community to practice irrigation farming for food self-sufficiency and water adequacy.

References

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Ngima, P. K. (2015).Impacts of water shortage in Githurai ward, Kiambu County, Kenya. Unpublished Masters’ thesis, Kenyatta University.

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